In my work on
metabolic capacities of male sierra dome spiders, measured respirometrically
during the spider's elaborate and strenuous ritual of copulatory courtship, I
have found that both metabolic efficiency (microwatts consumed per unit of
courtship performance) and maximum metabolic rate (sustainable aerobic
capacity) are positively selected by females. Two overt male traits
independently predict fertilization success, body mass and copulatory vigor
(measured as intromission rate - the number of separate genitalic connections
made by the male per unit time during copulatory courtship). Metabolic
efficiency is correlated with male body mass (even after compensating for the
expected allometric relationship) and aerobic capacity with copulatory vigor.
Interestingly, due to some fundamental physiological tradeoff (maybe to do with
accelerating rates of oxygen free-radicals with increasing metabolic rates)
efficiency and maximum metabolic rate are negatively
correlated in the general male population. By simultaneously
selecting positively for both of these traits, females are effectively shopping
for the least negative tradeoff between these two viability-enhancing
physiological traits. In other words, by cross-referencing body mass and
courtship performance, females are sexually selecting for metabolic power: the maximum rate at
which the male can perform useful metabolic
work (as opposed, for example, to "work" wasting calories
in the production of heat or unnecessary movement).
My respirometric studies also suggest that males sierra domes that are more sexually competitive early in
life, have more rapid rates of physiological senescence (as measured by their
resting and active metabolic rates). Rates of aging of prospective sires may be
a major issue for female sierra dome spiders. In my study population, variable
proportions (up to 85 percent!) of gravid females die each year just before
they are able to oviposit. They apparently succumb
just a bit too early to a rickettsial disease, but
their susceptibility may be related to their level of senescence. While a given
female's sons can hope to reproduce early in adult life, and so not have their
reproductive fitness threatened by the sexual competitiveness/senescence rate
tradeoff, daughters may be reproductively crippled by genes received from of a
rapidly aging father because females always need to live long to have a chance
to yolk up a sizeable clutch of eggs. Early reproduction is not an option for
females, so they cannot easily escape the competitiveness/senescence rate
tradeoff. Thus, to protect their daughters, female sierra dome spiders may need
to resist always mating with only the most sexually impressive males in the
population, especially early in the mating season before the ravages of aging
have taken their toll on the superstuds of the
population.
I also have a longstanding interest in human evolutionary psychology.
I am developing material for a book exploring
implications of a Darwinian analysis of human psychology for psychotherapeutic
methodologies. My most detailed work in this domain, with Dr. P.W. Andrews,
addresses the possible adaptive functions evolution of
unipolar depression. I presented the "social niche change model"
of depression to the Human Behavior
and Evolution Society and, as an invited keynote address, to the Across Species Comparisons and
Psychopathology (ASCAP) group, in July 1998. Another keynote address was
invited by The Association for the
Advancement of Philosophy and Psychiatry and given at their regional New
York City meeting on Evolutionary Theory and Psychopathology, in November 1999.
A paper on this topic has recently been published in the Journal of Affective
Disorders (October 2002; v. 72, pp. 1-14; get
PDF).
A lifelong special interest concerns how
insights from evolutionary
psychology may critically, practically, and constructively illuminate the
"sacred psychologies" and introspective methods of great
contemplative traditions such as Zen Buddhism, Sufism and Gnostic Christianity.
In his book "Consilience," E.O. Wilson writes, "Consider this
rule of thumb: To the extent that philosophical positions both confuse and
close doors to further inquiry, they are likely to be wrong." Serious
scientists everywhere readily embrace this attitude. I contend that this
attitude also long has been a cornerstone of genuine spiritual work - a radically
empirical, scientific, albiet personal activity that
vastly predates western science. For
more on this, click here to see the description of my workshops at the Esalen Institute, Big Sur,
California.
Current & Recent Grants 
Dr. Jacek Radwan (Jagiellonian University, Krakow, Poland) has been awarded a 9 month Fullbright
Fellowship (9 mos, from September 2000)
to collaborate with me in a study of sexual selection in acarid mites. Radwan has
been studying these mites since 1990. In several species of this family,
two male morphs co-occur within the same populations: fighter males have a
thickened and sharply terminated third pair of legs, whereas scramblers
have unmodified legs. Modified legs are used during fights to stab (often
mortally) other males. A male’s morph is determined in different ways
(genetically or environmentally) in different species, and thus this
system provides a unique opportunity to identify ecological factors
favoring male dimorphism against monomorphism
and those favoring environmental morph determination against genetic. The
study will have two main objectives: 1. To
determine if individuals possessing phenotypes associated with lower
fitness (scramblers) carry more deleterious mutations. 2. To determine
whether superior metabolic competence and lower fluctuating asymmetry are
associated with low mutational load and to resolve which of these measures
is a better candidate for a general fitness index.
- Hypoxia and
larval care in the bumble
bee, Bombus occidentalis
(12 mos, from May 1996), Montana's NSF EPSCoR program. With
Drs. P. Kukuk and D.L. Kilgore.
- Courtship
Energetics and the Heritability of Metabolic Competence (24 mos, from July 1994-96), National
Science Foundation. Behavioral and respirometric
research on the sierra dome spider Linyphia
litigiosa.
- REU supplement
to support undergraduate summer research relating rates of aging to sexual
competitiveness in the sierra dome spider (6 mos),
NSF.
GRADUATE HIGHLIGHTS 
- New York State College of Agriculture and Life Sciences, Distinguished Teaching Award,1986.
- Max-Planck-Institut
für Verhaltensphysiologie,
Visiting
Research Associate, 1986. Fourmonth
appointment at Seewiesen, Germany. Established lab for protein electrophoresis, and
performed paternity studies for doctoral research and population genetic
analyses of the social spiders Stegodyphus dumicola
and S. mimosarum.
Profs. W. Wickler and U. Reyer, sponsors.
- National Institute of Mental
Health Integrative Training Grant, 1985. For
work on chemical communication and courtship in the red-spotted
newt (Notophthalmus viridescens)and the spider Linyphia
litigiosa (1 yr tuition,stipend and
supplies).
- National Institute of Mental
Health Integrative Training Grant, 1984.
Chemical communication and courtship in the red-spotted
newt (1 yr tuition, stipend and supplies).
- NSF Dissertation Improvement
Grant, 1983. Reproductive behavior
of the spider Linyphia litigiosa.
- Society for the Study of
Amphibians and Reptiles Graduate Research Grant, 1983. Sexual selection and chemical communication
and courtship in the red-spotted
newt.
- Sigma Xi Grant-in-Aid (Cornell Chapter), 1983. Reproductive behavior of
the spiderLinyphia litigiosa, and chemical
communication in the red-spotted
newt.
- Graduate Research
Assistantship, 1983. Performed electrophoretic paternity analyses on Belding's ground
squirrel (Spermophilus beldingi)
and the spider Linyphia litigiosa,
with Paul W. Sherman and Bernard May (one semester tuition, stipend and research allowance).
- Sigma Xi Grant-in-Aid (National), 1982 and 1983. Reproductive behavior of
the spiderLinyphia litigiosa.
PUBLICATIONS 
- Watson, P.J.
and Vasquez, M. 1981. Comparative ecology of Woodsia scopulina
sporophytes and gametophytes. American Fern Journal 71, 3-9.
- Watson, P.J.
1986. Transmission of a female sex pheromone thwarted by males in the
spider Linyphia litigiosa
(Linyphiidae). Science 233, 219-221.
- Watson, P.J.
1988. The adaptive function of sequential polyandry in the spider Linyphia litigiosa (Linyphiidae). Ph.D.
Thesis. Ithaca, New York: Cornell University.
- Watson, P.J.
1990. Female-enhanced male competition determines the first mate and
principal sire in the spider Linyphia
litigiosa (Linyphiidae). Behavioral Ecology and
Sociobiology 26,77-90.
- Watson, P.J.
1991. Multiple paternity and first mate sperm precedence in the sierra dome
spider, Linyphia litigiosa.
Animal Behaviour 41, 135-148.
- Watson, P.J.
1991. Multiple paternity as genetic bet-hedging
in female sierra dome spiders (Linyphia
litigiosa: Linyphiidae). Animal Behaviour
41, 343-360.
- Watson, P.J.
1993. Foraging advantage of polyandry for female sierra dome spiders (Linyphia litigiosa: Linyphiidae)
and assessment of alternative direct benefit hypotheses. American
Naturalist 141, 440-465. get
PDF or view
abstract
- Watson, P.J.
and Thornhill, R. 1994. Fluctuating asymmetry and sexual selection. Trends
in Ecology and Evolution 9, 21-25.
- Watson, P.J.
and Lighton, J.R.B. 1994. Sexual selection and
the energetics of copulatory courtship in the sierra dome spider, Linyphia litigiosa. Animal
Behaviour 48, 615-626. get
PDF or view
abstract
- Watson, P.J.
1995. Dancing in the dome. Natural History 104(3), 40-43.
- Watson, P.J.
1998. Nonrandom multi-male mating by females increases offspring growth
rates in the spider Neriene
litigiosa (Linyphiidae). Animal Behaviour 55, 387-403. get
PDF or view
abstract
- Watson, P.J., Arnqvist,
G. and Stallman, R.R. 1998. Sexual conflict and the energetic costs of
mating and mate choice in water striders. American Naturalist 151,
46-58. view
abstract
- Watson, P.J. and
Andrews, P.W. 2002. Toward a revised evolutionary adaptationist analysis
of depression: the social navigation hypothesis. Journal of Affective
Disorders 72, 1-14. get PDF
- Radwan, J., Watson,
P.J., Farslow, J., and Thornhill, R. 2003.
Procrustean analysis of fluctuating asymmetry in the bulb mite, Rhizoglyphus robini
Claparede (Astigmata:
Acaridae). Biological Journal of the Linnean
Society 80, 499-505. get
PDF
- deCarvalho, T.N., Watson,
P.J., and Field, S. 2004. Costs increase as ritualized fighting
progresses within and between phases in the sierra dome spider, Neriene
litigiosa. Animal Behaviour 68, 473-482. get
PDF
- Cline-Brown,
K., and Watson, P.J. 2005. Investigating major depressive disorder
from an evolutionary adaptationist perspective: fitness hindrances and the
social navigation hypothesis. In: Focus on Depression Research. Devito, J.T., editor. Nova Science Publishers, Inc. Hauppauge, NY. more info.
Manuscripts
- Franklin, M., Watson, P.J., and Bercovitz,
R. Submitted, under revision. Contingent behavioral incitation of
male-male fighting by penultimate female sierra dome spiders. Animal
Behaviour. See
Carleton College press release.
- Hagen, E., Watson, P.J., and Thomson, J.A. Submitted.
Loves’ Labours Lost: Major depression as an
evolutionary adaptation to obtain help from those with whom one is in
conflict. Lancet.
- Keil, P., Watson,
P.J., Field, S., and deCarvalho, T.N. Factors affecting the escalation of
male-male fights in the sierra dome spider, Neriene litigiosa
(Linyphiidae). In Prep.
- deCarvalho, T.N., and
Watson, P.J. Energetic consequences for soapberry bugs of feeding on
preferred versus non-preferred chemically protected seeds. In Prep.
- Watson, P.J.
The energetic costs of copulatory courtship in the sierra dome spider and
female choice for metabolic power. In Prep.
- Watson, P.J.
Female choice: a genetic tradeoff between sexually competitive and rapidly
ageing sires in the sierra dome spider. In Prep.
- Watson, P.J., Fagerlund, R., Willingham, M., Polinsky,
K, Kang, J. and Kayser, A. Submitted,
extended MS In Prep. Evidence of injurious
male-male aggression and female chemical incitation in the lek mating system of a new species of fairy moth (Incurvariidae; Lepidoptera). view
abstract

ADDITIONAL PROJECTS 
- My current major writing project is a book on the evolution of
consciousness in humans.
- The energetics
and decision-making processes of male-male fighting in the sierra dome
spider Neriene litigiosa (Linyphiidae). Two postgraduate research associates,
Pamela L. Keil and Tagide
N. deCarvalho, are spearheading this research, which yielded a 1st place
poster at the UNM Biology Department's Research Day in April 2000. The
research documents the energetic cost of three stages of fighting in the
spider and the factors that modulate the willingness of males to escalate
fights. A manuscript that will feature Keil and
deCarvalho as coauthors is in preparation for
Animal Behaviour.
- Local physiological
adaptation and the energetic costs of alternative morphs in the soapberry
bug, Jadera haematoloma
(Hemiptera). Respirometric studies of
different populations across North America in search of divergences of basic physiological
traits. Collaborating with Dr. Jonas Forare, Sweden.
- Feeding preferences and the
energetics of food detoxification. I am
collaborating with Kevin Walker (grad) and Tagide
deCarvalho (undergrad) investigating the
energetic costs of dealing with plant defensive secondary compounds in
preferred and non-preferred foods in soapberry bugs
- The role of male-male
competition and female pheromones in the lek
mating system of a fairy moth, Adela brantleyae (Adelidae).
Examining the role of female pheromones and male-male assaults in a new
species of fairy moth. Collaboration with taxonomist Richard Fagerlund and students from my summer
behavior courses.
- Evolutionary Psychology
Workshops. In collaboration with veteran Gestalt
psychotherapist John D. Wymore, these conceptual
and experiential workshops are designed for mental health
professionals, personal growth counselors, and interested lay people.
Various 1-2 day workshops explore evolutionary insights into (1) the
structure of the human mind and the possible adaptive functions of
diverse forms of psychological pain and "dysfunction," (2) the
dynamic properties of human attention and the fundamental nature of
awareness and self-awareness, and (3) the functional
significance of unipolar depression in human social life, introducing
a detailed new adaptive model of both minor and major depression with
rich clinical implications. Overall, these workshops are aimed at persons
having a serious interest in the adaptive design of the human psyche, the
potential adaptive value of psychological pain, and the potential
therapeutic or personal growth value of enhanced awareness and more
objective self-understanding. Contact us for information on upcoming
workshop offerings in Albuquerque, NM. We can put you on our mailing list.
Personality correlates of fluctuating
asymmetry. I am working with Matt Deller, a recently graduated UNM student, testing
predictions concerning the relationship between extroverted social
strategies and fluctuating asymmetry (i.e., developmental competence) in Homo sapiens.
- Fluctuating asymmetry and
sexual success in male mayflies. Collaborating
with former UNM undergrad, Matt Deller.
- The adaptive function of sexual
mimicry of males by female damselflies. Collaborating with undergraduates from my 1994
& 1996 field courses.
- Multi-week zero-benefit
guarding of aphid colonies by carpenter ants:
slave-making aphids or investing ants? Pilot data were gathered in Montana summer 1995, and later by
my summer field classes.
- The effects of operational
sex ratio and female hunger on mating propensity and duration in three
water strider species (Aquarius remigis, Gerris buenoi, G. incurvatus). Collaborating with undergraduates from my summer
field courses.
- A Darwinian critique of
psychotherapeutic intervention strategies. I am in the early stages of research for a book
aimed at evaluation of treatment methods used in a spectrum of
psychotherapeutic traditions.
- Development of methods to
quantify levels of fluctuating
asymmetry using morphometric programs based
on thin plate splines relative warp analysis.
- Nutrition, re-mating
propensity and contingent female sexual preferences in mormon crickets. Field and laboratory study conducted by my Animal
Behavior field course from 1994-2000.

- RAPD-based molecular genetic
techniques for paternity analyses in the sierra dome spider. I funded a UNM undergraduate, Vince Montes, to
develop RAPD protocols in the UNM Biology Department's RIMI lab.
CONSULTING 
I accept consulting engagements on behalf of individuals, organizations, and
professionals. My consulting
interests are wide-ranging, but center on evolutionary biological analyses of
animal and human social or reproductive behavior. I can provide insightful
information in many areas of animal behavior, including the behavior of insects
and spiders, and diverse behavior problems of pets, especially dogs.
My greatest consulting
interests concern human behavior and emotional experience, especially the
analysis of psychological pain and distress. My insights are derived from
integrated perspectives of human evolutionary psychology and eastern and
western spiritual traditions. I am not a qualified mental health care
professional, and do not provide psychotherapeutic or other mental health care
services. But, I can provide insights into various psychological states and
conditions that may enrich one's self-understanding, potentiate
a relationship with a licensed therapist, or help one decide on a
psychotherapeutic approach. My speciality in the area
of human psychological pain is unipolar depression. Initial consults up to
one-half hour by phone or email are free. Contact me via email.
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